Panorama of Myanmar Higher Education

6. Promotion of Accessibility, Quality and Diversity in Higher

The Higher Education sector has experienced a tremendous expansion since 1988. The successful implementation of the Special Four-Year Education Plan which was initiated in 2000, and the twelfth year of the implementation of the Long-Term Education Development Plan have led to the promotion of accessibility to higher education, upgrading of the quality of education, and increase in diversity.

6.1 Ensuring Accessibility through Quantitative Expansion

Myanmar, which is aiming for equitable development of all its regions, has divided the country into 24 development zones, to ensure that no area may be left undeveloped. With the expansion in the number of higher education institutions from 32 in 1988 to 163 in 2012, each of the 24 development zone now possesses at least one arts and science university, one degree conferring technological institute and one computer science institute

Table 2. Number of Higher Education Institutions in States and Regions 

 

Sr. No.	State/ Region	No. of Institutions
1	Kachin	9
2	Kayah	3
3	Kayin	4
4	Chin	3
5	Sagaing	13
6	Tanintharyi	7
7	Bago	9
8	Magway	11
9	Mandalay	36
10	Mon	4
11	Rakhine	5
12	Yangon	33
13	Shan	34
14	Ayeyarwady	12
Total		163

Of the 163 higher education institutions in the country, 66 are under the supervision of the Ministry of Education. The type and variety of tertiary institutions have also increased. Before 1988, the majority of tertiary level institutions offered only arts and science disciplines and there were only 9 types of institutions. Now there are 33 different types under 13 different ministries, ranging from culture and traditional medicine to aerospace and maritime.

Main Building of Myeik University 

 

Table 3. Increase in the Number of Higher Education Institutions 

 

Sr. No.	Ministry	1988	2012	Increase
1	Education	27	66	39
2	Health	4	15	11
3	Science & Technology		61	61
4	Defence	1	5	4
5	Culture		2	2
6	Environmental Conservation and Forestry		1	1
7	Agriculture & Irrigation		1	1
8	Livestock Breeding & Fisheries		1	1
9	Co-operatives		5	5
10	Union Civil Services Board		1	1
11	Religious Affairs		1	1
12	Border Affairs		2	2
13	Transport		2	2
Total		32	163	131

 

6.2 Promoting the Quality of Higher

Higher education is undergoing qualitative transformation. The Thirty-Year Long-Term Education Development Plan aspires to transform breadth of learning into breadth and depth of learning. While promoting generative synthesis, it simultaneously intends to stimulate creativity, initiative and a keen desire to discover in students. To imbue these qualities in higher education students, all disciplines have undergone thorough renewal. New assessment techniques that test depth and breadth of knowledge, creativity and analytical thinking have replaced the old modes of testing that encouraged rote learning and regurgitation of facts. Moreover, to provide students with an extensive choice, all disciplines have introduced the system of offering foundation courses, core courses and electives since December 2002. The plan also seeks to boost the number of multi-disciplinary courses being offered at higher education institutions with the belief that integrated knowledge from different programmes trains students to think beyond the confines of a single discipline and inculcates in them intellectual breadth and depth.

At the undergraduate level, higher education institutions have introduced a wide spectrum of multi-disciplinary courses, to engage students in greater breadth of learning from a very early level. Another important task of the long-term plan being implemented is the change from department-based system to faculty system. The programme was presented at the 2002 higher education seminar and implemented stage by stage. The move will greatly facilitate in furthering the use of cross-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary approaches at higher education institutions. The twelfth year of the implementation of the Thirty-Year Long-Term Education Development Plan has seen noteworthy enhancements of the quality of programmes being offered. The number and type of programmes have significantly increased. ICT has gained a key foothold in the delivery of programmes and management, and faculty and staff development is being intensified. Moreover, higher education institutions are also trying to expand the linkages among the alternative forms of education programmes available.

6.2.1Qualitative Developments in Higher

The 66 higher education institutions under the Ministry of Education have expanded enormously the number of courses to promote a wider choice for students as well as to introduce courses that are more attuned to the needs of the times. Higher education institutions are also focusing on means to contribute to regional development by offering courses that fulfil community needs. Apart from regular undergraduate and postgraduate programmes, the institutions also offer distance and human resource development programmes. Moreover, Human Development Centres also offer the skills development and academic courses without any restrictions for those who possess the required qualifications and who desire to upgrade their qualities or for their job requirement. The following are the types and number of programmes offered by higher education institutions under the Ministry of Education.

Table 4. Types of Programmes offered by Higher Education Institutions under the Ministry of Education in 2012 

 

Sr No.	Type of Programme	No. of Courses
1	First degree	57
2	Honours degree	34
3	Diploma	22
4	Master’s degree	46
5	MRes	29
6	PhD	27
7	Human Resource Development Programme	195
Total		410

Source: Department of Higher Education (Lower Myanmar), MOE as of 31 May, 2012 Therefore, during the 2011-2012 AY, there are 215 regular academic programmes and 195 Human Resource Development programmes, making a total of 410 programmes. There is a total of 10,960 academic staff constituting professors, associate professors, lecturers, assistant lecturers, tutors and demonstrators. Compared with 5,992 teachers in 1988, it can be noted that 4,968 more teachers have been appointed. New tutors and demonstrators for all universities and colleges are going to be appointed very soon.

 

Sr. No.	Designation	No. of Teachers
		Male	Female	Total
1	Professor	178	605	783
2	Associate professor	153	614	767
3	Lecturer	513	3134	3637
4	Assistant lecturer	531	2580	3111
5	Tutor/Demonstrator	534	2188	2652
Total		1909	9051	10960

Source: Department of Higher Education (Lower Myanmar), MOE as of 31 May, 2012
The total number of undergraduate and postgraduate students at universities and degree colleges in May, 2012 is 470,912.

Table 6. Number of Undergraduate and Postgraduate Students at Universities and Degree Colleges in 2012 

 

Sr. No.	Course	No. of Student
		Male	Female	Total
1	Undergraduate Degree	58469	109748	168217
2	Honours Degree	981	5573	6554
3	MA/ MSc Qualifying	148	897	1405
4	Postgraduate Diploma	459	1266	1725
5	Tutor/Demonstrator	534	2188	2652
5	Master	1291	5333	6624
6	Master of Research	64	386	450
7	PhD	394	1659	2053
Total		61806	124862	186668
8	Distance Education(Undergraduate Degree)	125986	158258	284244
Grand Total		187,792	283,120	470,912

Source: Department of Higher Education (Lower Myanmar), MOE as of 31 May, 2012
Doctoral courses have been offered in universities under the Ministry of Education since 1994-1995 AY and in 2012, there are altogether 4,892 candidates who have received their doctoral degrees in their respective disciplines.

6.2.2Developing Learner Maturity, Creativity, Analytical Skills, and Ability to Utilize Modern Technology

A significant aim of the education development plans is to introduce new curriculums, effective teaching methods and evaluation system that give emphasis to the development of learner maturity and creativity, analytical skills, and ability to utilize modern technology. To promote these high order skills in students, higher education institutions formed task forces to introduce changes in teaching methodology. Learner-centred approaches, such as problem-based learning, project-based learning and fieldwork were incorporated into the learning experience of higher education students. This enhances practical and interpersonal skills and helps students to become more active learners who can synthesize practical with theoretical experience and employ knowledge learnt in solving real life issues. In addition, computer training centres were established at all higher education institutions and computer courses introduced at all levels as a compulsory component to promote computer literacy among tertiary students to enable them to harness ICT in their learning. Moreover, to facilitate effective instruction, multimedia lecture rooms were established at all higher education institutions to promote the use of multimedia presentations in teaching. Moreover, e-resource centres were introduced for both faculty and students.

6.2.3. Conducting Workshops to Promote Teachers and Learners Quality

Workshop on Promotion of the Quality of Students was held at Yangon Institute of Foreign Languages on 18-20 May, 2011. In the workshop, papers on incorporating study skills such as critical thinking skill, problem-solving skill, decision-making skill, creative skill, synthesis and analytical skill, self-study skill, and communication skill in teaching were presented and discussions were made so that all-round development of the students in higher education sector will be promoted.

Cascade courses were also conducted in respective universities and degree colleges. Moreover, a workshop to promote the quality of teachers was also held at Yangon Institute of Education on 25-30 November, 2011. Papers on educational psychology and philosophy in education, professional development of teachers and promotion of research skills were presented and discussed at the workshop. Senior faculty members from different institutions attended the workshop and cascade courses were conducted at respective institutions.

6.2.4 Revising Curricula and Introducing New Learning Materials

Under the guidance of the President of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, Workshop on Upgrading the Quality of Education Sector was held at the Ministry of Education in Nay Pyi Taw on 24 – 27 May, 2011 to undertake educational reforms. As an outcome of the workshop, the 3-year degree courses will be expanded to 4-year-degree courses by adding one more academic year in all universities and colleges under the Ministry of Education starting from 2011 – 2012 AY to upgrade the quality of higher education programmes and to ensure that students acquire knowledge, skills and technology that are of relevance to their future needs.

 

Fig. 1 Structure of Education System in Myanmar
In order to be compatible with the new degree courses, new curriculums and syllabuses of both undergraduate and postgraduate courses that are in line with those of the universities in ASEAN countries have been prepared by the respective Boards of Studies. The credit system introduced at the undergraduate and postgraduate level in 2000-2001 AY is also being revised in tandem with the new courses so that students can progress at their own rate according to their ability and the new courses would facilitate Myanmar students in transferring their credits to foreign institutions on student exchange programmes. Moreover, the teaching and learning process, activities and questions that demand critical thinking, conceptual thinking, analytical thinking and intelligent application are being utilized to move away from factual recall.

6.2.5 Launching New Programmes

To be in harmony with the momentum of progress of the nation and also to apply innovative technologies, multi-disciplinary approach was initiated at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels to develop cross-disciplinary system in the higher education institutions as part of the education promotion plan. Moreover, new courses such as Nuclear Physics, Journalism, are also offered to provide students with a wide intellectual platform and train them to think across disciplines and inculcate them with intellectual breadth. Graduate programmes such as the Master of Public Administration (MPA) programme was initiated by the Institutes of Economics (IOEs) to cater to the demand for advanced management studies. The Institute of Economics also introduced Bachelor and Honours degree programmes in Public Administration, Development Studies, Population Studies, Business Administration and Accountancy. The National Management College (NMC) which aspires to be a centre of excellence in the field of business and management education was founded in December 2004 in Yangon. It offers disciplines related to management to nurture highly qualified human resource, and in the process, the disciplines utilize the technology that has emerged with the times, and simultaneously provide training in the use of ICT and English. It aims to produce graduates and certificate holders of the highest calibre who are able to serve as specialists of international standard in government departments, private organizations, and their own enterprises. So far NMC has opened business management, ICT, journalism and English language related certificate, bachelor and diploma courses including the Diploma in Leadership Development.

6.2.6 Initiating Doctorate Programmes to Nurture Specialists

To generate an indigenous supply of the requisite specialists in the country, Yangon University initiated doctorate courses in the 1994-1995 AY, Mandalay University, Yangon Institute of Economics in 1998-1999 AY, Yangon Institute of Education in 2001-2002 AY, Mawlamyine University in 2004-2005 AY, Monywa Institute of Economics, Meiktila Institute of Economics and Yangon University of Foreign Languages in 2011-2012 AY. Due to this endeavour, a total of 4,892 candidates from higher education institutions under the Ministry of Education have received their doctorate degrees within the country up to May, 2012 and another 2,053 students are still doing the doctorate programmes at eight universities. Distinguished professors from reputable foreign universities are invited to act as external examiners or referees to the doctorate candidates in order to promote quality assurance. In addition, a new form of PhD programme that would enable professors, associate professors and senior lecturers over 45 years of age and with at least 10 years teaching experience to work for their PhD degree through submission of dissertations based on research carried out at their respective higher education institutions was initiated in 2002-2003 AY. This programme enables senior faculty to upgrade their knowledge without causing interruption to their work.

6.2.7 Catering to the Needs of Local Communities

Myanmar higher education institutions are reinforcing their role as a centre for creating and disseminating knowledge in the local community. They are defining the services, skills and knowledge that they could provide to rural areas and the community in which they are located and strengthen linkages with local communities and rural communities and contribute to their development. They are able to harness technology to act as a driving force in the delivery of knowledge and skills. They also carry out research on local resources and identify educational programmes they can offer using the networks of learning centres and community learning centres and other means available. Community-based human resource development is being activated in order to buttress development of the local residents’ lifelong learning and promote the growth of local industries. As a task of the Thirty-Year Long-Term Education Development Plan for fiscal year 2005-2006, higher education institutions were assigned to open Community Development Centres to facilitate their services to the community. The centres offer courses, do research and offer consultancy services needed by the region in which the institutions are located.

6.2.8 Initiating e-Education in Myanmar

6.2.8.1 Objectives of e-Education

The objectives of initiating e-Education in Myanmar are outlined below:

1. To create an academic environment that is endowed with dynamic knowledge and utilizing contemporary technology
2. To realize the transformation of the working force into a learning force
3. To transform Myanmar into a knowledge-dominated society
4. To strive for Myanmar society to become a lifelong learning society
5. To keep Myanmar education abreast with international standard

6.2.8.2 e-Education and Education Development Plans

The vision of the 30-Year Long-Term Education Development Plans regarding the utilization of technology in education is: To create an academic environment that is endowed with dynamic knowledge and utilizing the technology that will emerge with the times. . Of the 36 programmes in the long-term plan, the following 6 programmes are related to the utilization of technology:

1. To be able to use information and communication technology, which is changing and developing with the times, not only as a teaching technology but also as a learning technology
2. To give priority to communication technology and electronic technology, and to enhance skills at all levels of undergraduate and postgraduate studies, especially in continuing education programmes
3. To include microtechnology from the undergraduate level and to give priority to carrying out research on related fields
4. To transform higher education institution libraries into electronic information resource centres
5. To establish Electronic Resource Centres as Myanmar Electronic Information Network (MEIR_Net)
6. To establish the Myanmar Higher Education Network (MHE_Net) WAN that will link all the higher education institutions with the Internet

6.2.8.3 Creation of the ICT Infrastructure that Facilitates e-Education

In order to harness ICT to improve the quality of higher education programmes, the following facilities were established for e-education:

1. ICT based facilities such as computer training centres, multimedia lecture rooms and classrooms
2. Electronic Data Broadcasting System and 741 learning centres to form the educational network
3. VSAT System for Ministry of Education administration intranet and extension using fibre optic network system for linkage among departments and higher education institutions
4. Last Mile Radio Link at Department of Higher Education (Lower Myanmar) in addition to the existing VSAT connection
5. Wireless link video conferencing at 5 sites
6. iPSTAR system at 20 education colleges under the Department of Educational Planning and Training
7. Internet access for 100 high schools
8. Local Area Network of Department of Higher Education (Lower Myanmar) and universities and degree colleges
9. Initiating Computer Departments at universities and colleges

6.2.8.4 Establishment of ICT-based Facilities

As part of the Special Four-Year Plan for Education, the ICT infrastructure consisting of e-learning centres, computer training centres, e-resource centres to aid in the application of ICT in teaching and learning has been established in all the higher education institutions under the Ministry of Education. In particular, the setting up of computer centres in higher education institutions has enabled the teaching of computing as a compulsory subject and the enhancing of ICT skills of students. The long-term plan aims to consolidate on the gains made by the four-year plan.

 

Table 7: List of Centres and Facilities Established in Higher Education Institutions under the Ministry of Education 

 

Sr. No.	Name of Centre	No. of Centres
1	e-Education Learning Centre	50
2	e- Education Resource Centre	48
3	Computer Training Centre	144
4	Multimedia Lecture Room	58
5	Conference Room	51
6	Conventional Language Lab	93
7	e-library	34

 

Source: Department of Higher Education (Lower Myanmar), MOE6.2.8.5 Utilization of Electronic Data Broadcasting System for the Education Network

The Ministry of Education launched 203 e-Education learning centres that utilize Satellite Data Broadcasting System in collaboration with the Ministry of Information in Fiscal Year 2000-2001 to improve access to technology-enabling distance modalities, open learning and other flexible systems to facilitate life-long education opportunities. The two Universities of Distance Education utilize the e-Education learning centres for students to follow lectures transmitted via the Yangon University of Distance Education studio using the Satellite Data Broadcasting System. The centres also act as reference and study facilities where distance education students are given opportunity to consult their teachers. Three studios for transmission to learning centres – the Video Studio of Myanmar Education Research Department, the GlobeCaster Studio of Yangon University of Distance Education, and the Audio Studio of Yangon University of Distance Education have been built for the production and transmission of learning materials.

6.2.8.6 Establishment and Coverage of Wide Area Network (WAN)

The WAN system was introduced in the Ministry of Education using the VSAT system in fiscal year 2000-2001 and management tasks were carried out. It is being used for the exchange of information, e-mailing, the Internet, etc. among departments, education institutions and the Minister’s Office under the Ministry of Education. Internet facilities have been provided to all higher education institutions to be accessed at any time for study and research purposes by students, teachers and researchers, and the Internet uses the broadband system based on the VSAT system. Hence data, pictures and sound can be received. The installation of the VSAT at higher education institutions and Higher Education Departments has enabled the one-way Satellite Data Broadcasting System previously installed at e-Education Learning Centres to be linked with the VSAT making it possible for the upgrading of the one-way system into an interactive system. The Wide Area Network (WAN) and Electronic Data Broadcasting System under the Ministry of Education electronically connect all the 44 institutions of higher education, all the 20 Education Colleges, 100 basic education secondary schools, all the 10 departments under the Ministry of Education. Some higher education institutions also have access to wireless video conferencing facilities.

6.2.8.7 Establishment of Wireless Link Videoconferencing System

Transformation of the learning environment of higher education sub-sector into a technologically pervasive environment to be in tandem with advances in ICT began in the FY 2000-2001 with the initiation of the Special Four-Year Plan. Under the plan, Computer Training Centres, e-Education Resource Centres, e-Education Learning Centres, Audio Type Language Labs, Computer-Aided Language Labs, Multimedia Lecture Rooms and Conference Rooms were established at all the higher education institutions under the Ministry of Education. The establishment of such centres with ICT facilities has brought about fundamental transformations to higher education institutions enabling learners to use ICT in their learning and the faculty to provide improved instruction to their students. At the higher education level, the two distance education universities, Yangon University of Distance Education and Mandalay University of Distance Education provide part of their instruction at the 741 learning centres utilizing e-learning. Yangon Institute of Economics offers the Diploma in Education Management, which is a one-year tri-semester programme to enhance management skills of senior faculty and administrators. Part of the programme is spent at the respective home institutions and instruction is provided through e-learning. The English Department of Yangon University has also launched the Young Faculty Development Programme to upgrade the teaching skills of young faculty of English Departments of higher education institutions located all over Myanmar. The innovative programme is based on materials available on the Internet and conducted using the Satellite Data Broadcasting System and viewable at the learning centres of higher education institutions. The Diploma in Library and Information Management Programme initiated with the aim of upgrading the quality of the staff of libraries of higher education institutions utilizes computer aided Web-based e-Exam to test course participants. The Ministry of Education is increasingly using e-learning to provide short term training and educative programmes relevant to a wide audience as it has proved to be a cost effective means of disseminating knowledge and skills. The Ministry of Education initiated online training programmes at learning centres using the Satellite Data Broadcasting System. The online Non-formal Education training programme held in November 2003 was in the form of lectures, demonstrations, quizzes, plays and teleconferencing. Over 7200 persons participated in the training programme. The online training programme on education management for education officials and school principals was held in April 2004 at learning centres all over Myanmar with over 10700 participants. The introduction of the online training programmes enabled the reduction of training cost and at the same time has made it possible to increase the number of trainees. As a result of the establishment of the ICT infrastructure, more than 1.25 million students in the basic education sub-sector, nearly 10,000 teacher trainees at education colleges and about 700,000 students in the higher education sub-sector were provided knowledge and skills including regular academic programmes through e-learning centres throughout Myanmar. All the higher education institutions under the Ministry of Education have now received access to the Internet. In addition, local communities are enjoying the facilities to gain access to knowledge and educative programmes.

6.2.8.8 e-Education Initiatives in Higher Education

Transformation of the learning environment of higher education sub-sector into a technologically pervasive environment to be in tandem with advances in ICT began in the FY 2000-2001 with the initiation of the Special Four-Year Plan. Under the plan, Computer Training Centres, e-Education Resource Centres, e-Education Learning Centres, Audio Type Language Labs, Computer-Aided Language Labs, Multimedia Lecture Rooms and Conference Rooms were established at all the higher education institutions under the Ministry of Education. The establishment of such centres with ICT facilities has brought about fundamental transformations to higher education institutions enabling learners to use ICT in their learning and the faculty to provide improved instruction to their students. At the higher education level, the two distance education universities, Yangon University of Distance Education and Mandalay University of Distance Education provide part of their instruction at the 741 learning centres utilizing e-learning.

Yangon Institute of Economics offers the Diploma in Education Management, which is a one-year tri-semester programme to enhance management skills of senior faculty and administrators. Part of the programme is spent at the respective home institutions and instruction is provided through e-learning. The English Department of Yangon University has also launched the Young Faculty Development Programme to upgrade the teaching skills of young faculty of English Departments of higher education institutions located all over Myanmar. The innovative programme is based on materials available on the Internet and conducted using the Satellite Data Broadcasting System and viewable at the learning centres of higher education institutions. The Diploma in Library and Information Management Programme initiated with the aim of upgrading the quality of the staff of libraries of higher education institutions utilizes computer aided Web-based e-Exam to test course participants. The Ministry of Education is increasingly using e-learning to provide short term training and educative programmes relevant to a wide audience as it has proved to be a cost effective means of disseminating knowledge and skills. The Ministry of Education initiated online training programmes at learning centres using the Satellite Data Broadcasting System. The online Non-formal Education training programme held in November 2003 was in the form of lectures, demonstrations, quizzes, plays and teleconferencing. Over 7200 persons participated in the training programme. The online training programme on education management for education officials and school principals was held in April 2004 at learning centres all over Myanmar with over 10700 participants. The introduction of the online training programmes enabled the reduction of training cost and at the same time has made it possible to increase the number of trainees. As a result of the establishment of the ICT infrastructure, more than 1.25 million students in the basic education sub-sector, nearly 10,000 teacher trainees at education colleges and about 700,000 students in the higher education sub-sector were provided knowledge and skills including regular academic programmes through e-learning centres throughout Myanmar. All the higher education institutions under the Ministry of Education have now received access to the Internet. In addition, local communities are enjoying the facilities to gain access to knowledge and educative programmes.

6.2.8.9 Inauguration of the Totally Online Teaching Programmes

The Computer Science Department of Yangon University has initiated the online MSc. (Computer Science) programme using the web-based teaching system. Students can use their own computers to learn, answer, and discuss from anywhere they wish to follow the course. Yangon Institute of Economics has launched an MBA programme using the online system since January 2008.

6.2.8.10 Nurturing Teachers and Technicians for e-Education

Since 1999, the Ministry of Education has been giving careful consideration to the nurturing of teachers for e-instruction. Two training programmes, Postgraduate Diploma in Teaching (PGDT) and Postgraduate Diploma in Multimedia Arts (PGDMA) have been initiated at the two Institutes of Education. The courses focus on the development of ICT knowledge and skills of basic education teachers for application of ICT in their teaching and the management of the multimedia classrooms in schools. The curricula for the two courses have been revised to make them more in tune with current and future needs. Similarly at the higher education level, courses such as e-Government Course, DHEs Computerization Course, Photo database Course, MYAN1_EDU Portal Application Course, the MSc Computer Science Course for Faculty and Administrative Staff, the Post Graduate Diploma in Computer Science Course, the Diploma in Software Engineering Course, the Diploma in Hardware Engineering Course, and the Diploma in Networking Engineering Course were launched with the aim of building a pool of ICT specialists to develop, teach and manage ICT and e-education programmes at institutions and departments under the ministry. Technicians, faculty and high school teachers have also been provided with training in the operation and maintenance of ICT appliances, production of ICT-based learning materials and the administration of learning centres.

6.2.9 Universities’ Research Status and Future Prospect

Today, the State has placed high priority on fulfilling the requirements of the education sector for all-round development of the nation and therefore more investment is made for the development of intelligentsia, professionals, and human resources needed for the development of the nation. The Ministry of Education has taken the responsibility of the gradual development of the entire education sector and that of nurturing highly qualified human resources in accordance with the requirements of the nation. The Ministry of Education takes complete responsibility of the basic education sector, while the respective universities, under the supervision of their ministries, administer the affairs of the higher education sector.

6.2.9.1 Structure

In ministerial coordination, the three councils, chaired by the Union Minister for Education and formed with Deputy Ministers, responsible personnel from various departments and Rectors as members, undertake consultation and decision-making in developing education policy, in specifying objectives, in setting quality assurance norms and in designing academic programmes. These councils are the National Education Committee, the Universities’ Central Council and the Council of University Academic Bodies.

6.2.9.2 Aims of the Higher Education Sector

The aims of the Higher Education Sector under the Ministry of Education are as follows:

1. To upgrade the universities in Myanmar to those of internationally recognized universities and academic institutions
2. To offer degrees, diplomas and certificates which are accredited by international universities and academic institutions
3. To nurture graduates who have necessary expertise, knowledge and skills for practical application in workplaces

6.2.9.3 Priority Tasks

In order to achieve the aims, the following tasks have been undertaken.

1. To make sure effective teaching methodologies are used
2. To have qualified faculty members at universities
3. To make effective use of teaching/learning aids
4. To encourage faculty members to conduct researches
5. To promote collaboration with foreign universities and academic institutions, and to send more scholars abroad for further studies
6. To create a comprehensive education environment
7. To nurture quality for students

6.2.9.4 Current Research Status

Measures have been taken to encourage and promote research activities in higher education institutions. Among the principal activities of the universities in the higher education sector, academic research programmes, including researches that serve national interest and that promote professional development of teachers, occupy a central position. The research objective to carry out international standard research activities not only in the education sector but also in other sectors required for the building of a peaceful modern developed nation is one of the 12 objectives of the 30-Year Long-Term National Education Development Plan. The research programme aiming to carry out research for academic development as well as for outside industries, organizations, and businesses which are seeking new technology as well as to contribute directly to national benefit through research is being implemented as one of the 36 programmes under the 30-Year Long-Term National Education Development Plan.

6.2.9.5 Current Research Areas

Researches, conducted at universities under the Ministry of Education beneficial to academic disciplines, local areas and the nation are as follows:

Table 8: Research Areas 

 

No.	Research Area
1	Research AreaBuilding a high-performance cluster computing network
2	Pilot production of bio diesel from physic nut oil and other grain oils; and a study of their physical and chemical properties
3	Production of bio-diesel from waste pan oil
4	Construction of Solar water still
5	Construction of Solar dryer
6	Construction of Solar cooker
7	Construction of Wind turbine generator

 

6.2.9.6 Specialised Research Stations

Since universities under the Ministry of Education are located across the Regions and States of Myanmar, specialized research stations have been established, according to their local needs as follows:

Table 9: Research Stations and their Locations 

 

No.	Name of the Research Station	University	Location
1	Universities’ Research Centre	Yangon University	Yangon University campus, Kamayut Township, Yangon
2	Aquaculture Research Centre	Mawlamyine University	Set Se Village Tract, Than Phyu Zayat Township
3	Marine Science Research Centre	Pathein University	Makyee Area, Shwe Thaung Yan Sub-Township
4	Biological Resources Research and Biotechnology Development Centre	Pathein University	Pathein University campus, No. 3 Ward, Pathein
5	Marine Science Research Centre	Myeik University Campus

 

6.2.9.7 Research equipment installed and researches conducted in specialized research departments

Universities’ Research Centre in University of Yangon
Universities’ Research Centre in University of Yangon, is providing services for research studies. For science disciplines, in order to conduct the research effectively, international level advanced research equipment is used and analyses are carried out and measurements for research are taken. In addition, laboratory research services are provided to fulfill the requirements of other ministries and private commercial sectors.
Research equipment installed at URC are as follows:

 

No.	Items
1	Scanning Electron Microscope
2	Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer
3	Optical Colour Densitometer
4	Fourier Transform Laser Raman Spectrometer
5	QuanX Spectrometer
6	Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer
7	X-Ray Diffraction Spectrometer
8	Biological Stereo Microscope
9	Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrometer
10	Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer
11	Thermogravimetric and Differential Thermal Analyser
12	Atomic Absorption Spectrometer

Acquacultre Research Centre of Mawlamyine University
Acquaculture Research Centre has been established for conducting researches at the Marine Science Department of Mawlamyine University. The Seaweeds Researches comprising production of Spirulina tablets and foodstuff product, identification of 300 kinds of Myanmar seaweeds and trial culture of Alge seaweeds are conducted. Research findings and technologies have been handed over to the departments concerned and local business organizations. Moreover, short courses for prawn breeding, Artemia breeding, egg producing and sea prawn breeding have been offered.
Marine Science Research Centre of Pathein University
At Pathein University, various marine science research studies such as systematic collection, conservation, production of aquatic biodiversity, systematic catching are being conducted. On demand skill-training courses for private businessmen have also been conducted since 2001 at Marine Science Research Department of Pathein University.
Biological Resources Research and Biotechnology Development Centre of Pathein University
In collaboration with Japan National Institute of Technology and Evaluation, (NITE) and Pathein University, Biological resources research centre and Biotechnology Development Centre have been established. Students attending M.Res and Ph.D courses of Yangon University and Mandalay University are conducting Biotechnology and Microbiology researches. The different types of research equipment installed at this research centre are as follows:

 

Sr.	Items
1	Bio Clean Bench (Sanyo MCV-B161S/F)
2	Microscope (Nikon E200, E2T-C) including Digital Camera
3	Dry Heat Sterilizer (SANYO MOV-212S)r
4	Precision Balance (Melter Toledo PB4002-S)
5	Autoclave TOMY SX-300
6	Constant Temperature Water Bath (TAITEC SD-B)
7	Spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV-1240)
8	Precision Water Bath
9	Dry Rack (YAMATO NDR-80B)
10	Medical Refrigerator (SANYO MPR-513)
11	Refrigerator
12	Ice Maker
13	13. Ultra Deep Freezer (MDF-593 AT)
14	Cool Incubator (SANYO-MIR 253)

Marine Science Department of Myeik University At Myeik University, Marine Science Department is conducting aquaculture research on Kappaphycus Alvarezii, the red seaweeds species which can produce Carrageenan in the Myeik archipelago.

6.2.9.8 Research Studies that have been completed and that are being conducted

The subject teachers from Degree Colleges and Universities of Higher Education Department are conducting researches which are beneficial to the nation, regions and respective subjects. The following table shows the number of researches that have been completed and that one being conducted.

Department of Higher Education (Lower Myanmar)Table 10: Number of Researches Completed and Being Conducted 

 

Sr.	Colleges/ Degree Colleges	Completed	Being Conducted
1	Yangon University	416	83
2	Yangon Institute of Economics	259	76
3	Yangon Institute of Education	86	>54
4	Mawlamyine University	414	183
5	Yangon University of Distance Education	240	183
6	Dagon University	575	253
7	Pathein University	151	147
8	Yangon University of Foreign Languages	293	78
9	Sittwe University	58	28
10	Taungoo University	294	75
11	Pyay University	938	143
12	Dawei University	79	41
13	East Yangon University	126	115
14	West Yangon University	181	124
15	Hinthada University	157	116
16	Maubin University	99	50
17	Hpa-an University	40	34
18	Myeik University	84	47
19	Bago University	146	53
20	National Management College	16	3
Total		4652	1886

 

Department of Higher Education (Upper Myanmar)Table 11: Number of Researches Completed and Being Conducted 

 

Sr.	Colleges/ Degree Colleges	Completed	Being Conducted
1	Mandalay University	79	54
2	Taunggyi University	135	36
3	Sagaing Institute of Education	54	36
4	Magway University	192	43
5	Monywa University	421	134
6	Mandalay University of Foreign Languages	77	37
7	Myitkyina University	42	102
8	Monywa Institute of Economics	163	40
9	Mandalay University of Distance Education	54	47
10	Yadanarbon University	252	189
11	Meiktila University	105	81
12	Pakokku University	68	31
13	Meiktila Institute of Economics	63	52
14	Kyaukse University	59	48
15	Panlong University	52	13
16	Kalay University	104	37
17	Loikaw University	147	14
18	Lashio University	42	21
19	Kyaington University	44	16
20	Bhamo University	63	14
21	Shwebo University	60	61
22	Yaynanchaung Degree College	43	10
23	Myingyan Degree College	47	14
24	Mohnyin Degree College	51	21
Total		2417	1157

 

6.2.9.9 Research Database and the Effective Use of it

The abstracts of researches completed in Degree Colleges and Universities have been recorded as database according to research titles, fields of research. On the other hand, the database of researches being conducted is recorded according to research titles, fields of research and percentage of completion. Such a database helps to trace the list of researches being conducted in accordance with fields of research and universities.

6.2.9.10 Publication of research journals

As research is the life-blood of universities, conducting researches is actually training faculty members to become innovative and well-qualified academicians in their respective academic subjects. To encourage faculty members to actively take part in conducting researches, to conduct exploratory researches continuously, to take further steps to become researchers for technology development, and to record their research findings for public access, to be able to use them when they are necessary, three types of research journals have been published as follows:

 

Sr .	Name of Journals	Edition	Publisher
1	Journal of the Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science	11	Myanmar Academy of Arts and Science (MAAS)
2	Universities Research Journal (URJ)	4	Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Education
3	University Research Journal	3	Respective University

 

The number of Researches included in the journals published by Universities and Degree Colleges are as follows:

Department of Higher Education (Lower Myanmar)Table 12: Number of Researches Included in the Journals Published 

 

Sr.	Colleges/ Degree Colleges	MAAS	URJ	University	Total
1	Yangon University	455	177	100	662
2	Yangon Institute of Economics	34	15	17	66
3	Yangon Institute of Education	21	>31	40	92
4	Mawlamyine University	33	33	43	109
5	Yangon University of Distance Education	27	23	46	96
6	Dagon University	96	80	53	235
7	Pathein University	8	29	73	110
8	Yangon University of Foreign Languages	25	23	43	91
9	Sittwe University	1	18	30	49
10	Taungoo University	12	20	42	80
11	Pyay University	25	21	45	91
12	Dawei University	3	7	25	35
13	East Yangon University	5	29	48	82
14	West Yangon University	33	31	46	110
15	Hinthada University	14	27	37	78
16	Maubin University	2	10	44	56
17	Hpa-an University	10	10	35	35
18	Myeik University	18	1	36	55
19	Bago University	2	9	34	45
20	National Management College		2	5	7
Total		813	543	384	2204

 

Department of Higher Education (Upper Myanmar)Table 13: Number of Researches Included in the Journals Published 

 

Sr.	Colleges/ Degree Colleges	MAAS	URJ	University	Total
1	Mandalay University	67	76	41	184
2	Taunggyi University	9	7	20	36
3	Sagaing Institute of Education	3	3	13	19
4	Magway University	5	24	55	84
5	Monywa University	9	11	29	89
6	Mandalay University of Foreign Languages	7	6	23	43
7	Myitkyina University	11	8	21	40
8	Monywa Institute of Economics	2	5	13	20
9	Mandalay University of Distance Education	9	6	23	38
10	Yadanarbon University	6	39	33	78
11	Meiktila University	3	9	26	38
12	Pakokku University	5	6	29	40
13	Meiktila Institute of Economics	2	12	24	38
14	Kyaukse University	2	25	34	61
15	Panlong University	16	6	40	61
16	Kalay University	6	8	21	35
17	Loikaw University	7	8	29	44
18	Lashio University	3	12	20	35
19	Kyaington University	7	9	31	47
20	Bhamo University	1	3	20	24
21	Shwebo University	4	3	19	26
22	Yaynanchaung Degree College	3	3	33	39
23	Myingyan Degree College	5	4	19	28
24	Mohnyin Degree College	3	3	17	29
Total		195	296	633	1124

6.2.9.11 Researches to be Conducted in Collaboration with International Institutions

As for the international collaboration between 1-4-2012 and 15-3-2013, under the programme of AUN/SEED-Net programme, the first batch of master students and PhD students, supervisors from host supporting university (JSUs) and co-supervisors from Myanmar Universities will collaborate to develop the Collaborative Research Programme 2012.

6.2.9.12 Fields of Research that are Proposed for International Collaboration

The fields of research that are proposed for international collaboration are as follows:

Table 14 : Fields of Research Proposed for International Collaboration

Sr.	Subject	Research that can be conducted	Research proposed
1	Myanmar		Language, Literature
2	English	Testing techniques in ELT, Literary Theories, Simultaneous Interpretation	Group activities in ELT, Teaching Productive Skills, Conversational Analysis
3	Geography	Agricultural Geography, Environmental Geography, Economic Geography	Landuse, Transportation
4	History	Political History & History of International Relations, Socio-Economic History, Cultural History	Political History & History of International Relations, Socio-Economic History, Cultural History
5	Philosophy	Philosophy of Culture,Aesthetics, Ethics	Philosophy of Culture,Ethics of Environmental Conservation, Social Philosophy
6	Anthropology	Cultural Anthropology,Ecological Anthropology, Archaeological Anthropology	Cultural Anthropology,Archaeological Anthropology,Anthropology
7	Psychology	Personality Traits	A cross-cultural study on attachment types between ethnic races in Myanmar, A cross-cultural study on value orientations and conflict management styles in Myanmar, Japan, Asean values and their effects on environmental behavior: A comparative study between Myanmar and US
8	International relations		Political and Security Cooperation, Economic Cooperation, Socio-Cultural Cooperation
9	Law	Patent Protection, Anti-Terrorist Law in Line with International Instruments, Laws and Practice of Arbitration	Laws and Practice of States Relating to the Establishment of Stock Exchange Market, Laws relating to the Lease of Immoveable Property of Foreigner, Problems relating to the Maritime Boundary Delimitation
10	Archaeology	Stone Age Culture, Development of Pyu Culture, Art and Architecture of Bagan	Prehistoric Stone Age Culture, Evolution of Early Urbanization, Development of Historical Urbanization
11	Oriental studies	Linguistic, Culture, Buddhism	Pali Literature, Pali Language, Religion
12	Library and information study		Online Library Development
13	Chemistry	Natural Product Chemistry, Nanochemistry, Environment Chemistry	Biochemistry & Enzymology, Advanced Nanochemistry, Environmental Chemistry
14	Physics	Materials Science, Solar Cell, Microwave	Materials Science, Solar Cell, Crystallography
15	Mathematics	Geographic Analysis on Urban,Public Transportation of Some Large Cities in Marnmar	Combinatorial Optimizations in Actions,Algebraic Structures and their Applications,Theory and Applications of Differential Equations
16	Zoology	Ichthyology,Entomology,Biotechnology	Ichthyology,Entomology,Biotechnology
17	Physics	Pharmocognosy,PharmaceuticalMicrobiologyPlant Pathology	Molecular Biology and Biotechnology,Pharmacognosy,Tussue Culture
18	Industrial Chemistry	Food Processing and Food Dehydration, Food Packaging, Environmental Science (Eastewater Treatment)	Food Processing and Food Dehydration, Food Packaging, Environmental Science (Eastewater Treatment)
19	Geology	Mineral Resources, Mineralogy and Petrology, Geotechnical Engineering, Earthquake Seismology and Environmental Geology, Tectonics, Sedimentology, Sequence Stratigraphy and Paleonotology	Geochronology and Paleomagnitism, Seismic Sequence Stratigraphy and Petroleum Geology, Environmental and Geohazard Mitigation
20	Computer	Database Management System, Software Engineering and Artificial Intelligence	High Perfomance Computing, Agent-Base Technology and Web Technology

6.2.9.13 Creating a Strong Research Environment

The education plans seek to build research capabilities of higher education institutions to promote basic research to generate new knowledge, applied research to boost research not only for the advancement of the discipline concerned, but also for enterprises, organizations and industries that are in need of modern technology, and those that will have a direct impact on the development of the nation. Research facilities have been upgraded and new equipment and references provided and funding for research has been enhanced. The emerging trend among Myanmar higher education institutions is to provide research services to government departments and private enterprises or collaborate with them in conducting research. A number of these researches have found to be of high economic value. The formation of research links with industry will be beneficial to higher education institutions in the form of financial and equipment contributions, facility and support staff development and application of the results of researches. For the long-term development of research, the long-term plan aims to establish higher education institutions specializing in research and enhance collaborative research with international research centres and organizations. As forerunners to this endeavour, Yangon University and Mandalay University have been assigned to specialize in research and they are now establishing multidisciplinary research centres on their campuses through collaboration among different departments.

6.2.10 English Language Teaching in Myanmar

The Ministry of Education has been making every attempt to improve English of both teachers and students. Before 1981, English was taught starting from Grade 6 at school. Since 1981, English has been taught starting from Kindergarten. English is a compulsory subject at schools and at undergraduate level in universities. English has been learnt in Myanmar as a foreign language. English is used as a medium of instruction at high schools for science subjects and at universities for the majority of disciplines. But discussions have been made to teach social science subjects, using both English and Myanmar to promote students’ comprehension. English is offered as a specialization subject at universities. BA(English), MA(English) and M. Research courses are conducted at Arts and Science Universities, Diploma courses at Yangon University, Mandalay University and Yangon University of Foreign Languages, PhD courses at Yangon University and Mandalay University. Under Human Resource Development programmes, Global English course is conducted at National Centre for English Language and Diploma and Master courses at Yangon Institute of Education. The ELT Task Force was upgraded as the National Centre for English Language (NCEL) in December, 2004. The courses offered at NCEL are: Diploma, Master and PhD (English) courses, English for PhD students of Yangon University, Training of Trainers from other Ministeries, Faculty Development Programmes such as Upskilling Programme for Freshly Appointed Tutors of Englsih (UPFATE) (2002- 2005) and English Language Course for Higher Education Teachers (ELCHET) (2002- 2003, 2004). Myanmar-India Centre for English Language Training (MICELT) was established on 5 February, 2009. Annual ELT Conferences have been held since 2002. Refresher Courses for teachers of English have been conducted at Yangon Institute of Education and cascade courses at the respective universities.

6.3 Enhancing Diversity in Higher Education

A variety of modalities has been introduced in higher education to create access and promote more choices for those seeking training and education. These include distance education programmes, human resource development programmes offered by higher education institutions and part-time conventional course conducted in the mornings, afternoons or evenings to suit those who are employed.

6.3.1 Creating Effective Distance Education Programmes

Two Universities of Distance Education, Yangon University of Distance Education in lower Myanmar and Mandalay University of Distance Education in upper Myanmar have been established to provide access to higher education to those who are unable to pursue it at conventional institutions for some reasons. Under the education development plans, new specializations – English, Oriental Studies, Myanmar Studies, Creative Writing, Public Policy, Home Economics, and Business Management – were introduced at the distance education universities in addition to the existing 12 disciplines – Myanmar, Geography, History, Philosophy, Psychology, Law, Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, Zoology, Botany, and Economics. This raised the number of disciplines being offered to 19, thereby advancing the Universities of Distance Education’s efforts to be more flexible, responsive and open. As in other higher education institutions, the credit system was also introduced at the Universities of Distance Education to facilitate student transfer from conventional institutions to those specializing in distance learning and vice-versa. New textbooks were produced in the modular format by textbook committees consisting of specialists in line with the revision of the curriculum. Distance education universities started with simple means – books and assignments – to provide education to their students. Today, Myanmar distance education institutions can harness a variety of means including sophisticated technology to enhance instruction and provide greater services. To facilitate student learning, a studio to transmit distance education programmes has been established to telecast regular programmes using a separate channel. Satellite Data Broadcasting System is utilized to transmit the programmes from the studio to learning centres located at higher education institutions, education colleges and basic education high schools all over Myanmar, so that distance education students can view the programmes at the centre most convenient to them. The long-term plan will expedite the expansion of the distance education system and transform it into an open university, to create new teaching programmes, to provide both programmes leading to degrees as well as to introduce programmes that will promote skills and to provide the highest and most extensive learning opportunities by utilizing technology.

6.3.2 Human Resource Development Programmes to Promote Qualified Human Resource

The National Centre for Human Resource Development was established by the Ministry of Education in June 1998 in accordance with the decision arrived at the seminar held earlier in March 1998 to diversify education opportunities in order to produce highly qualified human resource needed by a modernizing economy. Upholding the belief that education is a lifelong learning process, the centres function with the following main aims: – to widen the scope of choices for students wishing to pursue job-related knowledge, skills and technology – to establish new programmes for training and re-training – to offer opportunities to those graduates who desire to continue with their studies to acquire advanced skills and knowledge – to establish a parallel education system which nurtures intellectuals and experts needed by the country – to enable those who wish to continue their studies to do so without being a burden to the State – to economize on the budget provided by the State by conducting courses that charge a minimum amount of tuition fees – to prevent education wastage by enabling those who have not completed their tertiary level education to do so at their own pace and during their free time – to confer degrees, diplomas and certificates appropriate to the curriculum and length of the courses – to utilize retired academics in order to make use of their skills and knowledge Under the National Centre for Human Resource Development (NCHRD) are the Centres for Human Resource Development established at every higher education institution under the Ministry of Education. The centres identify community needs and initiate vocational, professional and technology based courses that are in demand. The centres for human resource development began their activities in 1998 with certificate and undergraduate diploma courses, but they have now begun to offer degree, postgraduate diploma, and even postgraduate degree courses. The Human Resource Development Centre of Yangon University opened certificate courses on Food Technology, Basic Library Science, Basic Electronics, Gemology (Basic and Advanced) and Information Technology and the Global English course among others. Yangon University of Foreign Languages and Mandalay University of Foreign Languages Human Resource Development Centres are catering to the foreign language needs of the workforce by opening English, Chinese, French, German, Japanese, Korean, Russian and Thai language proficiency courses. The demand for business related courses is also being met by the Human Resource Development Centres. The Diploma in Commercial Law was initiated by Yangon University and Mandalay University Human Resource Development Centres. The Diploma in Business Studies (DBS), Diploma in Financial Accounting (DFAc), Diploma in Management Accounting (DMAc), Certificate in Business Studies (CBS), Certificate in Advanced Business Studies (CABS) courses were opened by Yangon Institute of Economics Human Resource Development Centre. Diploma in Economics courses, Basic Applied Economic courses, Advanced Level Applied Economics courses, Financial and Management Accountancy courses, Agriculture and Regional Development Studies courses, Certificate Course in Applied Information Technology were also opened at Monywa Institute of Economics Human Resource Development Centre. Courses on social studies, culture and fine arts were also opened by higher education institutions in order to provide individual interest programmes. A number of courses opened by the human resource development centres were held in partnership with foreign and local private enterprises contributing to their practical relevance. Yangon University of Foreign Languages Human Resource Development Centre in collaboration with TOPA 21st Century Language School of Japan opened Japanese language courses. Software Engineering, Hardware Engineering and Network Engineering courses have been opened at New Century Resource Centre run by the National Centre for Human Resource Development in collaboration with Winner Computer Group, a private computer company.

 

Table 12. Number of HRD Courses in 2011-2012 AY

Sr. No	Types of Courses	No. of Courses
1	Master Degree	5
2	Degree	13
3	Postgraduate Diploma	19
4	Undergraduate Diploma	23
5	Certificate	135
Total		195

Source: Department of Higher Education (lower Myanmar)

Table 13. Number of HRD Students since 1998

As these courses are held in parallel to the regular programmes at higher education institutions, this arrangement is often referred to as the one-campus-multi-system arrangement. The CHRDs will continue to strive to identify the needs of the communities they are based in, promote programmes that fulfill the needs of communities, regions and the state and participate in the development of qualified manpower needed for a modernizing and developing economy.

6.3.3 Offering Flexible and Convenient Courses

Morning, evening and weekend classes, some leading to diplomas and degrees, have been opened to cater to the professional needs of those in service. The Department of Physics of Yangon University is providing a wide range of IT courses in collaboration with private IT enterprises. The Department of Law of the same university is providing courses on business and maritime law to update the knowledge of those in the law profession. The Universities of Foreign Languages are also providing foreign languages programmes with just the minimum requirement of matriculation and with no limit placed on age or experience in the morning and evening. Yangon Institute of Economics has also initiated evening MBA and MPA to cater to the needs of those working.